Development of Real-Time CT and CT Fluoroscopy
1. Introduction
The history of computed tomography (CT) can be viewed as a reduction
in calculation times. In 1971, G. Hounsfield developed a prototype
CT scanner that required 4.5 minutes for image acquisition and
20 minutes for image reconstruction of a single slice after the
raw data was brought back to the laboratory1). CT technology subsequently
underwent rapid progress, permitting the scanning time to be reduced
to 1 second over the next 20 years. Images can now be displayed
a few seconds after scanning is completed. However, to our knowledge,
no attempts had been made to achieve true real-time observation
of CT images. One interventional radiology textbook stated that
"CT images cannot be observed in real time, unlike ultrasound
images."2) No one tried to improve this situation because
everyone assumed that a long time would always be required for
the scanning and reconstruction of CT images. In practice, various
processing steps such as scanning, preprocessing, data transfer,
coordinate transformation, convolution, back projection, image
display, and data storage must be performed before CT images can
be displayed on the monitor screen. In order to achieve the real-time
observation of CT images, all these steps must be completed within
1 second at the most, which is difficult to achieve even with
the latest CT technology.
We were able to realize the goal of real-time CT, which had never
been attempted before, by assembling a team comprising both engineers
and clinicians. In this paper, the process of development of real-time
CT will be reported from a viewpoint of a member of the development
team. The future prospects of real-time CT will also be discussed.
2. Background of the development of real-time
CT
Initially, we were by no means certain that we would be able to
develop a practical real-time CT scanner from the clinical viewpoint.
In 1986, a slip-ring CT scanner (TCT-900S, Toshiba, Tokyo) was
installed at our institution. It was the installation of this
new CT scanner, which permitted us to perform scanning with no
interscan delay, that motivated us to develop real-time CT. We
explored a number of new possibilities, including the development
of various dynamic CT techniques to most fully exploit the advantages
of continuous scanning. Not only contrast studies such as dynamic
subtraction CT of the central nervous system diseases(DSC-CTA)
3), but also dynamic CT studies of body movements such as respiration
(dynamic respiratory scanning , DRS), external ocular muscle movements
(EOM-CT scanning) have been developed and clinically applied 4,5).
Among these studies, DRS was particularly important in demonstrating
the potential of helical scanning. We were assured that satisfactory
image quality could be obtained even though scanning was performed
while the patient couch was moved, since acceptable pulmonary
images were obtained by DRS despite the vertical movements of
the lung during respiration. In 1987, we performed our first helical
scan study. Throughout our investigations using dynamic studies,
we eagerly hoped to observe these vital movements in real time.
In parallel, the engineering group continued with their technical
investigations into making the best use of the advantages of continuous-rotation
slip-ring CT. Basic studies on helical scanning were performed
in 1982, and patent applications were submitted.6) A reconstruction
technique to improve the apparent temporal resolution in dynamic
scanning was developed, which was applied in the real-time CT
reconstruction afterwards. Efforts to minimize the image reconstruction
time bore fruit with the development of the fast pipeline reconstruction
unit (real-time reconstruction unit: RTRU) in 1990, which was
incorporated into the CT reconstruction system. Ohashi developed
a new algorithm, for which patent applications have been submitted,
in which raw data is divided into 60-degree segments, permitting
six images to be generated from the data obtained in one rotation.7)
The engineering team led by Yutaka Shibata shared the dream of
developing a CT system in which images could be observed in real
time. Real-time CT was thus made possible by combining the dreams
of both engineers and clinicians.
3. Development and presentation of CT fluoroscopy
August 28, 1993, is a memorable date for us because that was the
day that the basic development goals of real-time CT were first
established. On that day, four people, three responsible members
of the CT development team and I, held the first of many meetings
on the development of real-time CT. Representatives of the engineering
group initially felt that such a development project was premature.
In contrast, we clinicians were quite enthusiastic about the project,
spurred on by our earlier experience with helical scanning: we
had started our experiments so early, had obtained patents, and
had almost reached the point of production of a helical CT scanner,
but the German group beat us to the punch in presenting the application
of helical scanning.8) Vowing not to repeat the same mistake,
all of the participants agreed to undertake the development of
real-time CT.
We immediately set clear goals for several basic characteristics
of real-time CT. Clinically, the first objective was to develop
real-time CT-guided biopsy. Since that time, the name "CT
fluoroscopy" has been used to describe one of the representative
applications of real-time CT. The target date for the development
project was set as mid October of the same year, in order to meet
the deadline for the Hot Topics session of the Annual Meeting
of the Radiological Society of North America (RSNA). We also established
the following goals: a delay time between scanning and image display
of 1 second or less, the provision of an additional monitor and
control panel in the CT scanning room, and the development of
a needle holder.
The major technological hurdle was image storage. It took at least
1 second to store images on hard disk. I insisted that images
should be stored on videotape rather than on hard disk, due to
the unacceptable delay time. Finally, we all agreed that images
should be stored in large-capacity memory.
In September, production of a prototype real-time CT scanner was
started based on an existing CT scanner, and the first real-time
CT system was completed in October thanks to our familiarity with
the basic technology of real-time CT and the engineers' unflagging
efforts. Phantom experiments were then conducted at the factory.
In these experiments, an acrylic rod was moved slowly in the vertical
direction during scanning. The rod movement was displayed in real
time, and the results of these experiments were considered successful
(Fig.1).
The first CT fluoroscopy system was installed at our hospital
in October 1993 by adding a new image reconstruction subsystem
and software to an existing CT scanner. On the day of installation,
I participated in the first trial as a volunteer, and waved my
hand within the gantry (Fig.2). We confirmed that CT images were
displayed in real time at a rate of three images per second.
Before starting the clinical application of CT fluoroscopy, we
eagerly discussed the wide range of applications of this new method.
We decided to focus on lesions in the chest and head, where ultrasound
examination is difficult, rather than the abdomen, where ultrasound-guided
biopsy had already established itself as a useful method free
of the disadvantage of X-ray exposure. The first clinical application
of CT fluoroscopy was the drainage of intracerebral hematoma.
During stereotaxic puncturing of the hematoma, the needle was
observed on the monitor in real time (Fig.3).
We presented the results of our studies at the Hot Topics session
of RSNA '93, held in November of that year.9) Immediately after
our presentation, several interventional radiologists from a variety
of the country expressed interest in our work. Today, real-time
CT has proved its usefulness as a tool for monitoring or navigation
in biopsy procedures, drainage procedures, and so on.10,11)
4. Other applications of real-time CT
CT fluoroscopy is perhaps the most exciting application of real-time
CT. However, this is not a universal application intended for
use at every hospital. We have developed the following two functions
to further expand the usefulness of real-time CT.
The first function is real-time helical scan. Using this function,
conventional helical scan data can be reconstructed and displayed
in real time, so that the slice that is being scanned can be viewed
immediately. This permits the optimal scanning range and scan
timing to be determined in real time during the examination, thus
minimizing the number of failed examinations. Since the end-point
of helical scanning can be confirmed in real time, both patient
exposure and the X-ray tube cooling time can be reduced. In addition,
the operator does not need to wait for all of the images to be
reconstructed after scanning, and the patient can leave the examination
room immediately after scanning is completed, minimizing patient
discomfort and maximizing patient throughput.33)
The second function is SureStart, which was developed by Dr. Hirofumi
Anno. SureStart makes it possible to determine the optimal phase
in contrast CT studies.12) As is well known, the time required
for intravenously injected contrast medium to reach the target
region is affected by various factors such as the patient's cardiac
function and so on. As a result, the optimal scan timing differs
from patient to patient. When SureStart is used, the scan timing
can be determined by directly observing the contrast enhancement
of the target blood vessel after the injection of contrast medium.
As a result, the optimal phase can be precisely and easily obtained
in all patients.
These two functions are general-use applications that have been
developed not for special cases at specialized institutions, but
for the benefit of a large number of patients. The use of these
functions enhances the quality of examination, minimizes patient
discomfort during scanning, and increases patient throughput,
bringing benefits to radiologists, radiological technologists,
patients, and hospitals. After experiencing real-time CT firsthand,
users immediately realize that performing a conventional CT study
is largely based on clinical experience and subjective judgment,
and may therefore find it difficult to return to conventional
CT examinations without real-time reconstruction. These two functions
will surely be considered indispensable in the future.
5. Future prospects for real-time CT
Since the development of real-time CT, Toshiba's engineers at
the Nasu factory and the staff of Fujita Health University have
held periodic meetings to discuss the future development of this
exciting new technology. More than one hundred items and ideas
have been discussed in these meetings. Steady advances are being
made in real-time CT. Among them, the most obvious is improved
temporal resolution. In the prototype produced in 1993, three
images were displayed per second, and in September 1994, this
was increased to six images per second. Today, the latest model
permits twelve images to be displayed per second with a delay
time of 0.3 s, paralleling a reduction in scan time to 0.5 second
per rotation. When the delay time is 0.5 s or less, images appear
to the observer to be displayed in real time. Therefore, the delay
in the latest CT scanners is almost unnoticeable.
What are the future prospects for real-time CT? The answer to
this question is closely related to the advances that are currently
being made in multi-slice CT. Multi-slice helical CT is expected
to lead to dramatic changes in future CT diagnosis, and real-time
CT is expected to play an important role in fully exploiting the
advantages of this new technology. When multi-slice helical scanning
is performed, presetting of the contrast timing is more difficult
than in conventional CT scanning, since scanning is completed
within a few seconds. This makes it even more important to determine
the contrast timing accurately using real-time CT (SureStart).
In addition, if multiple slices (in this case, three slices) can
be displayed simultaneously in real time, it is possible to immediately
detect any deviation of the puncturing needle from the center
slice in CT fluoroscopic biopsy. Furthermore, if longitudinal
images could be reconstructed from several tens of slices in real
time with fast image processing, biopsy procedures could be performed
while observing sagittal or coronal images, as is possible in
MRI-guided biopsy.
The most outstanding feature of real-time CT, as represented by
CT fluoroscopy, is that various CT examinations and procedures
that were previously performed "blind", relying on the
radiologist's clinical experience, can now be performed with real-time
visualization. It is expected that real-time CT will be incorporated
into future CT scanners as a standard feature.
Acknowledgments
The author thank Hirofumi Anno, Ryoichi Kato, Gen Takeshita, Yuko
Ogura, Sukehiko Koga, Katsumi Tsujioka, and Yoshihiro Ida whose
support and cooperation has been invaluable. The author also acknowledge
the staff of Toshiba Corporation, including Mr. Yutaka Shibata,
Mr. Yoshiki Hirao, Mr. Mitsuru Yahata, Mr. Toshihiro Rifu, Mr.
Masahiro Ozaki, and other members of the CT group at Toshiba's
Nasu factory, who have devoted themselves to the development of
real-time CT.
References
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Figure legend
Fig. 1. First phantom study for CT fluoroscopy.
a. An acrylic phantom with moving acrylic rod in center.
b. Movement of the acrylic rod simulating puncturing needle was
successfully displayed at a speed of 3 images per second.
Fig. 2. First volunteer study for CT fluoroscopy.
Motion of volunteer's hand was displayed in real-time on an additional
monitor.
Fig.3. First clinical application.
Stereotaxic puncture of intracerebral hematoma. An arrival of
needle tip to the hematoma was monitored with the aid of CT fluoroscopy.